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How do you decompose a bond portfolio's total return into its component sources using fixed income attribution analysis?
Fixed income return attribution decomposes total bond returns into income, Treasury curve, spread, and selection effects. Each component isolates a different manager decision: yield harvesting, duration positioning, credit allocation, and security-level alpha generation.
How do you calculate the funded status of a defined benefit pension, and what hits the income statement vs. OCI?
Pension accounting is one of the densest topics in CFA Level II, but once you see the framework, it becomes very systematic. The funded status equals the fair value of plan assets minus the projected benefit obligation (PBO), and what hits the income statement vs. OCI follows a clear set of rules.
What is a liability glide path, and how do pension funds use it to de-risk their portfolios as funded status improves?
A liability glide path systematically shifts pension assets from equities to liability-hedging bonds as the funded ratio improves. Pre-defined triggers at funded ratio thresholds lock in funding gains by reducing surplus volatility, following either rule-based or discretionary implementation.
What is the two-fund separation theorem, and how does it simplify portfolio selection for all investors?
The two-fund separation theorem states that all mean-variance investors hold the same tangency portfolio, differing only in their allocation between this portfolio and the risk-free asset. This reduces multi-asset allocation to a two-step decision.
How does signaling theory explain the market reaction to dividend changes, and what makes a dividend signal credible?
Signaling theory explains that dividend changes convey credible information because they are costly to imitate — firms must sustain higher payouts or face severe market penalties. The asymmetric cost of cutting dividends makes increases a credible positive signal.
How are indefinite-lived intangible assets tested for impairment, and why aren't they amortized?
Indefinite-lived intangibles are not amortized because their cash-flow-generating period has no foreseeable limit, but they must be tested for impairment annually by comparing carrying value to fair value (GAAP) or recoverable amount (IFRS).
How must composites be constructed under GIPS, and what common composite construction errors lead to non-compliance?
GIPS requires all actual fee-paying discretionary portfolios to be included in at least one composite. You cannot exclude underperforming portfolios. Composites must have clear definitions, and portfolio assignments must follow the mandate -- not performance results.
How do companies determine their target capital structure, and what factors push the optimal debt ratio higher or lower?
Companies determine target capital structure by minimizing WACC through a combination of modeling at different debt levels, peer analysis, credit rating constraints, and stress testing. The optimal ratio balances tax shields against financial distress costs.
Why is stepwise regression considered dangerous, and what are the main pitfalls of automated variable selection?
Stepwise regression is dangerous because it tests hundreds of variable combinations, inflating the probability of false discoveries. Reported p-values become invalid, coefficients are biased upward, and models that look great in-sample often fail out-of-sample.
How do Qualified Opportunity Zone investments provide capital gains deferral and potential exclusion, and what are the holding period requirements?
Qualified Opportunity Zone investments offer three tax benefits: deferral of original capital gains, a 10% basis step-up after 5 years, and complete exclusion of appreciation after 10 years. The program requires reinvesting gains within 180 days into a qualified fund.
How does the dependency ratio affect fiscal policy, savings rates, and investment returns across countries?
Rising dependency ratios reduce national savings, increase fiscal pressure through pension and healthcare costs, push real interest rates lower, and may compress long-term equity returns. Portfolio managers should incorporate demographic trend analysis into country allocation and sector selection.
How does a diagonal spread exploit time decay differences between near-term and far-term options?
A diagonal spread sells a near-term OTM option (high theta decay) and buys a longer-term option at a different strike (lower theta), profiting from the faster decay of the short leg. The expiration mismatch allows rolling the short leg for recurring premium income.
When and why are stock options excluded from diluted EPS as anti-dilutive, and how do you test for anti-dilution?
Stock options are anti-dilutive and excluded from diluted EPS when their exercise price exceeds the average market price (out-of-the-money). Additionally, when a company reports a net loss, all potentially dilutive securities are automatically anti-dilutive because including them would reduce the reported loss per share.
How does the put-call ratio work as a sentiment indicator, and why is extreme bearish sentiment often a bullish contrarian signal?
The put-call ratio measures put volume relative to call volume as a sentiment gauge. Extreme readings above 1.10 indicate panic and often mark contrarian buying opportunities because most sellers are already positioned. Combine with VIX and survey data for strongest signals.
What are market breadth indicators, and how does the advance-decline line signal the health of a market rally?
Market breadth indicators like the advance-decline line measure how many stocks participate in a market move. When an index hits new highs but the A/D line diverges downward, the rally is driven by narrow leadership and is historically more vulnerable to reversal.
When should a retiree choose a life annuity over a systematic withdrawal plan, and what are the key trade-offs?
Life annuities provide higher income than systematic withdrawal through mortality credits (pooling longevity risk), but sacrifice capital and flexibility. The choice depends on longevity risk, bequest motive, other income sources, and risk tolerance. A hybrid approach often optimizes both security and flexibility.
How do you construct a vega-neutral options portfolio, and why would you want one?
A vega-neutral portfolio eliminates sensitivity to implied volatility changes by offsetting positive and negative vega positions. Construction involves calculating total portfolio vega and adding options with opposite vega exposure in sufficient quantity to reach zero net vega.
What are balloon payment bonds and what unique refinancing risk do they carry?
Balloon payment bonds are partially amortizing, with a large principal payment due at maturity. The primary risk is refinancing risk — the borrower typically plans to refinance the balloon, which can fail if interest rates rise or credit conditions tighten.
How do warrants differ from options, and what impact does exercise price have on dilution?
Warrants and exchange-traded options differ fundamentally in that warrants cause dilution by creating new shares when exercised, while options merely transfer existing shares. The exercise price determines how much cash the company receives relative to the dilution created.
How does an unrealized gain on AFS debt securities create a deferred tax liability, and where is it recognized?
An unrealized gain on AFS securities creates a DTL because the book value exceeds the tax basis. Both the unrealized gain and its deferred tax effect are recognized in OCI, maintaining matching. Upon sale, both reclassify to the income statement.
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